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THE HOOK

I'm James Madison, often called the Father of the Constitution. I helped write 29 of the Federalist Papers and served as America's fourth president.

Now, looking at this collection of complaints, I have to wonder. What if Congress outlawed every single one of your pet peeves? Would that even work?

Some things are just annoying. Does being annoyed mean Congress should make a law against them?

Think, Pair, Share: Which pet peeve, if any, is worth a law against it? Why?

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“the General Welfare”

Wanting something changed is easy. Deciding what government should do about it is another matter.

Government decisions and actions addressing public problems become PUBLIC POLICY. This includes passing laws, creating programs, establishing regulations, and deciding how public money is spent.

Congress plays a central role in shaping national policy. It decides which proposals become federal laws, determines how public money is spent, and helps oversee government programs. But not every problem requires a new law or government action.

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

PUBLIC POLICY OR NOT?

Which of these established a public policy?

A House Divided

The Constitution gives CONGRESS, the legislative branch, a central role in shaping PUBLIC POLICY. Congress considers competing ideas, decides which become federal laws, and determines how national priorities receive funding.

But these decisions aren't made by one group. The framers created a BICAMERAL legislature, dividing Congress into the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Each chamber represents Americans differently, follows different rules, and holds distinct powers. These differences influence which policies advance, face obstacles, or ultimately become law.

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EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

CONGRESS, BEFORE THE LESSON

Now that we've explored PUBLIC POLICY and how Congress is divided into two chambers, it's time to see how those chambers are organized, what powers they hold, and how they shape national policy.

Complete the Congress in Four Frames worksheets using the answer key in the Lesson 2.01 section of the AP Gov site. Shade all AP-marked areas in one color.

When finished, begin your Lesson 2.01 notes.

PT. 1: THE HOUSE RULES

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

I   LEGISLATIVE

II   EXECUTIVE

III   JUDICIAL

Who Holds the House?

Each dot is one House seat

435

SEATS

214 Democrats

218 Republicans

1 Independent

2 Vacant

HOUSE SEATING DIAGRAM • SEPTEMBER 2, 2026

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THe PeoplE's House

Congress shapes national policy by considering bills and deciding how public money is spent. The House is one of its two chambers, with 435 voting seats and two-year terms.

To serve, a representative must be at least 25 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for seven years, and live in the state they represent. Every two years, voters decide whether to keep or replace them.

In Federalist No. 57, Madison argued that frequent elections remind representatives of their dependence on the people. Reelection can influence which policies they support. 

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

The District Map

The House has 435 voting seats to share among the states. Every ten years, the CENSUS counts how many people live in each state. A formula set by Congress uses those counts to divide the seats.

As people move, a state’s share of the U.S. population can change. It may gain a seat at the next count. Because the House still has 435 seats, another state must lose one.

Each state then has one CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT for each of its seats. Voters in each district elect one representative. We’ll study who draws district lines and the related Supreme Court cases later.

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EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

Review: Why do some states have lots of little faces while others have just a few huge ones?

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Order in the House

Each of the 435 representatives has one vote and brings priorities from back home. Each can argue that their proposals deserve the House’s attention. But they cannot all set the agenda. Who gets heard first?

The House elects a SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE to lead its work. The MAJORITY PARTY has the most seats, giving it the greatest influence over the LEGISLATIVE AGENDA and which proposals receive attention.

MAJORITY AND MINORITY LEADERS organize their parties’ priorities, while PARTY WHIPS count votes and build support. These roles help determine which ideas have a chance to become policy.

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

House Leadership

SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE

Mike Johnson

Republican • Elected by the full House

MAJORITY • REPUBLICANS

MINORITY • DEMOCRATS

MAJORITY LEADER

Steve Scalise

Plans floor business

MINORITY LEADER

Hakeem Jeffries

Sets minority party strategy

MAJORITY WHIP

Tom Emmer

Counts votes and builds support

MINORITY WHIP

Katherine Clark

Counts votes and builds support

CONFERENCE CHAIR

Lisa McClain

Leads Republican party meetings

CAUCUS CHAIR

Pete Aguilar

Leads Democratic party meetings

119TH CONGRESS • OCTOBER 2026

Divide THe work

With 435 representatives and thousands of proposals, the full House cannot study every issue together. COMMITTEES give smaller groups time to do that work.

• STANDING COMMITTEES handle continuing policy areas, such as agriculture or education, and review most bills.
• SELECT COMMITTEES focus on a specific task or investigation.
• JOINT COMMITTEES bring House and Senate members together on shared work.

Sending a bill to a committee determines who examines it first.

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EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

The Committee System

Standing committees review bills and oversee government work.

THE HOUSE

01

Agriculture

02

Appropriations

03

Armed Services

04

Budget

05

Education and Workforce

06

Energy and Commerce

07

Ethics

08

Financial Services

09

Foreign Affairs

10

Homeland Security

11

House Administration

12

Judiciary

13

Natural Resources

14

Oversight and Government Reform

15

Rules

16

Science, Space, and Technology

17

Small Business

18

Transportation and Infrastructure

19

Veterans’ Affairs

20

Ways and Means

20 STANDING COMMITTEES • 119TH CONGRESS

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The Committee Test

A bill can reach a committee and simply wait. The MAJORITY PARTY holds more seats and chooses the committee chair, who helps decide which bills get attention. Which policy ideas are worth the committee’s time?

For a bill the committee takes up, members may hold a HEARING. They invite experts and people affected by the issue to explain what the proposed law might do. At a MARKUP, members debate the details, change the bill’s wording, and vote on whether to move it forward.

So how many bills make it out of committee?

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

The Committee Bottleneck

House bills in the 118th Congress

Most bills go to committee. Few come back out.

Bills introduced

10,564

Bills sent to committee

10,533

Bills that left committee

831

7.9%

831 of 10,564 bills left committee

51.3%

426 of those 831 passed the House

SOURCE GOVINFO BILL STATUS • 118TH CONGRESS

Rules of the House

A committee has studied the bill. If the House takes it up, the bill reaches the HOUSE FLOOR, where all representatives can consider it. Before voting, members may speak for or against it and propose changes.

With 435 members, the House cannot give everyone unlimited time. For many major bills, the HOUSE RULES COMMITTEE proposes a rule that sets the length of debate and decides which AMENDMENTS, or proposed changes, members may offer. The full House votes on that rule.

The rule shapes the debate. Then the House votes on whether to pass the bill.

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EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

LASTLY

THE HOUSE GOES FIRST

TAXES

REVENUE

Bills to raise federal taxes must begin in the House.

CONSTITUTION

SPENDING

APPROPRIATIONS

By tradition, bills to fund the federal government begin in the House.

HOUSE TRADITION

IMPEACHMENT

FORMAL ACCUSATION

Only the House can formally accuse a federal official of misconduct.

CONSTITUTION

EQ CHECK

How can the House’s structure and rules shape national policy?

The House has ¹____ seats divided among states by ²__________. Elections every ³____ years keep representatives attentive to their districts.

Still, not every proposal gets a vote. The ⁴________ party usually supplies the ⁵_______ and leads committees. Its leaders use committee decisions and floor rules to decide which bills get attention and reach a ⁶____. This gives the majority more power over which ideas can become national policy.

CHOICES

A

vote

B

two

C

Speaker

D

population

E

435

F

majority

EQ CHECK

How can the House’s structure and rules shape national policy?

The House has 435 seats divided among states by population. Elections every two years keep representatives attentive to their districts.

Still, not every proposal gets a vote. The majority party usually supplies the Speaker and leads committees. Its leaders use committee decisions and floor rules to decide which bills get attention and reach a vote. This gives the majority more power over which ideas can become national policy.

PT. 2: THE FLOOR IS YOURS

UNITED STATES SENATE

I   LEGISLATIVE

II   EXECUTIVE

III   JUDICIAL

THINK, PAIR, SHARE

Think back to the House rules we studied last week. What stands out about what Senator Smith is doing here?

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A Second Branch

In the clip, Senator Smith refuses to yield the floor, keeping the Senate’s attention on his argument. A speech like his would be harder to imagine in the House.

Senators can spend more time in DEBATE over proposals. Through DELIBERATION, they hear objections, test arguments, and consider changes before deciding. This slower pace helps explain the Senate’s nickname, “the world’s greatest deliberative body.”

The Senate is also called the upper chamber of our BICAMERAL Congress. That traditional label was once literally true. In Congress’s first meeting place, senators met upstairs from the House.

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

FEDERAL HALL

WALL STREET · NEW YORK CITY

U.S. SENATE
DESK LAYOUT

THE CANDY
DESK

One senator keeps this
back-row desk stocked
with candy for colleagues.

DESK GRAFFITI

Names inside Senate desk drawers
show who once used them. The
tradition began around 1900.

From Here to Congress

If you went to Congress to represent this district, what would you ask the federal government to do you and your constituents?

PHOTO SOURCES KPBS • APPLE MAPS • DEAR JANE PHOTO • MARINAS.COM

ALL OF CALIFORNIA

You represent all of California. Which concerns would you take to Congress first? What if they conflict?

PHOTO SOURCES KPBS • WIKIMEDIA COMMONS

TWo senators per...

Those desks belong to the Senate’s 100 members. Unlike the House, where states receive seats according to population, every state has EQUAL REPRESENTATION in the Senate with two senators. Each senator represents an entire state.

To serve, a senator must be at least 30 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for nine years, and live in the state they represent.

Senators serve six-year terms. Their elections are staggered, so about one-third face voters every two years. In Federalist No. 62, Madison argued that longer terms would help senators weigh issues without following every shift in public opinion.

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EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

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No Speaker HEre

The House has detailed rules to manage debate. Senate leaders cannot limit debate as tightly. Individual senators have more room to speak, object, and delay.

The MAJORITY LEADER schedules floor business and works with the MINORITY LEADER to arrange debate. PARTY WHIPS count votes and build support. Leading the Senate often means getting senators to agree.

The VICE PRESIDENT presides over the Senate and can break a tie vote. Senators elect a PRESIDENT PRO TEMPORE to preside when the vice president is absent. Party leaders guide most daily legislative work.

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

SENATE LEADERSHIP

PRESIDING OFFICERS

VICE PRESIDENT

J.D. Vance

Presides and breaks tie votes

PRESIDENT PRO TEMPORE

Chuck Grassley

Presides when the VP is absent

MAJORITY • REPUBLICANS

MINORITY • DEMOCRATS

MAJORITY LEADER

John Thune

Schedules floor business

MINORITY LEADER

Chuck Schumer

Negotiates debate and strategy

MAJORITY WHIP

John Barrasso

Counts votes and builds support

MINORITY WHIP

Dick Durbin

Counts votes and builds support

CONFERENCE CHAIR

Tom Cotton

Leads Republican conference

STEERING & POLICY CHAIR

Amy Klobuchar

Helps shape Democratic policy

119TH CONGRESS • OCTOBER 2026

The Committee System

Like the House, the Senate has standing committees covering many of the same policy areas.

THE SENATE

01

Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry

02

Appropriations

03

Armed Services

04

Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs

05

Budget

06

Commerce, Science, and Transportation

07

Energy and Natural Resources

08

Environment and Public Works

09

Finance

10

Foreign Relations

11

Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions

12

Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs

13

Judiciary

14

Rules and Administration

15

Small Business and Entrepreneurship

16

Veterans’ Affairs

16 STANDING COMMITTEES • 119TH CONGRESS

Getting to the floor

Senate COMMITTEES work much like House committees. Senators study bills, hear from people affected by them, consider changes, and decide whether to send a bill to the full chamber.

Getting the bill to the SENATE FLOOR works differently. Leaders may ask for UNANIMOUS CONSENT. They are asking every senator, “Does anyone object to moving ahead?” If no one objects, the Senate can begin considering the bill.

A senator who objects can ask leaders to place a HOLD on the bill. A hold warns that moving ahead may take extra time, so leaders may delay bringing it to the floor.

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EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

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Can we vote yet?

The House sets debate limits. In the Senate, senators can keep DEBATE open and delay a vote, even when most senators favor the bill.

A FILIBUSTER is a political tactic that delays or prevents a vote through extended debate. Smith does it with a long speech. Today, senators can threaten one without speaking for hours.

Senators use CLOTURE to end debate. For most bills, it needs 60 votes, though passing a bill usually takes a majority. If cloture fails, the Senate may never vote. Without Senate approval, the bill cannot become law.

EQ: How does the structure of Congress shape the way national policy is made?

BEYOND BILLS

THE SENATE DECIDES

APPOINTMENTS

CONFIRMATION

The Senate approves or rejects many presidential picks for top officials and federal judges.

CONSTITUTION

AGREEMENTS

TREATIES

Treaties are agreements between nations. Two-thirds of senators present must approve them.

CONSTITUTION

IMPEACHMENT

SENATE TRIAL

After the House accuses an official, the Senate holds a trial. Two-thirds must vote to remove.

CONSTITUTION

WATCH THIS

How does a filibuster affect whether a bill gets a vote in the Senate?

EQ CHECK

How can the Senate’s structure and rules shape national policy?

Unlike the House, each state has ¹____ senators and ²_____ representation. Senators serve ³____-year terms and represent entire states.

Senate rules give individual members more room for ⁴______. A ⁵__________ can delay or block a vote. Ending one through ⁶_______ usually requires 60 votes. This means a smaller group can press for changes or keep a bill from advancing, even when it has enough support to pass.

CHOICES

A

filibuster

B

equal

C

cloture

D

two

E

six

F

debate

EQ CHECK

How can the Senate’s structure and rules shape national policy?

Unlike the House, each state has two senators and equal representation. Senators serve six-year terms and represent entire states.

Senate rules give individual members more room for debate. A filibuster can delay or block a vote. Ending one through cloture usually requires 60 votes. This means a smaller group can press for changes or keep a bill from advancing, even when it has enough support to pass.

PT. 3: EASIER SAID THAN DONE

LEGISLATIVE PROCESS

I   LEGISLATIVE

II   EXECUTIVE

III   JUDICIAL

PART 3 • THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS

FROM BILL TO LAW

A bill is a proposal for a law. Follow the decisions that can turn it into national policy.

01

COMMITTEES

Hearings and markup can change a bill. Many bills stop here.

02

HOUSE AND SENATE

House rules limit debate. A Senate FILIBUSTER can delay a vote.

03

SAME TEXT

Both chambers must pass the same bill in identical form.

04

PRESIDENT

The President signs or vetoes. Congress can override a veto.

Where could this proposal be delayed, changed, or stopped?

PT. 4: LET'S MAKE A DEAL

BUDGETING & COMPROMISE

I   LEGISLATIVE

II   EXECUTIVE

III   JUDICIAL